English Language Essay

English has been utilized from numerous points of view since we at any point began talking it. Presently as we move into the future, English has and still will be utilized as a global language. For what reason is it thought of so? Additionally how did this occur? There are changes continuous that influence English as a language, for example, business openings and why it is significant for any potential manager wishing to utilize somebody. It is additionally utilized by experts who are grinding away every day, on movement, or business related issues. English is spoken in a wide range of nations and numerous individuals there comprehend English as it is required for business, travel and so on. English is likewise a wellspring of information as it is expected to comprehend what individuals are stating, understanding books, composing letters, or perusing the papers for instance. Presently in this here and now we may be feeling that English won't be undermined, however will what's to come be well for English later on like it is currently? These inquiries will be replied all through this bit of text. English has become a worldwide language with worldwide noteworthiness. For a few, English has the significance of a language that has been built up for quite a while and has had enormous number of local speakers. In this sense, English, Spanish, Hindi and Arabic, the most generally spoken primary languages on the planet these days, may be considered as global dialects. Be that as it may, in spite of the fact that these dialects are spoken by countless local speakers of different human advancements, they can't fill in as a language of more extensive correspondence. It is in this feeling English is the worldwide language. In numerous occurrences it is the language of more extensive correspondence both among people from various nations and between people from one nation. Along these lines, English is a universal language in both a worldwide and a neighborhood sense. How did English become a worldwide language? At the stature of British force in spots, for example, Australia, India, Hong Kong and so on , the sun never set on the Empire which implied that the British held least one nation in every mainland and that at whatever point it was night or day it was never going to set on the British Empire completely. They had huge property in places everywhere throughout the world just as being a significant exchanging country, and English merchants could be found anyplace. English was a valuable language to learn hence. As American force overshadowed that of Great Britain, individuals didn’t need to get familiar with another dialect to manage Americans †Americans communicated in English, as well. So English’s position turned out to be increasingly dug in. English is a language of global correspondence. It is utilized in numerous spots, for instance in an air terminal where all the messages are in English. English is utilized in the travel industry, exchange, innovation. All the most up to date things inside innovation are imprinted in English. It is spoken by many individuals on the planet. It’s one of authentic dialects in United Nation and European Union. It’s simple to utilize and to convey to individuals all over the place. It’s not an extremely troublesome language to learn. All programming languages and projects are firmly associated with English. A great deal of data in the web is additionally written in English. Consequently this is the reason English turned into a global language. What potential businesses need the majority of a potential representative is somebody with inspiration, insight, and demonstrated capacity to work. In the event that you get an English degree this shows you have those characteristics. The capacity to convey is likewise truly significant for practically any occupation. Considering English shows you how to compose plainly and viably. Most courses and a few employments additionally require introductions and class conversations to build up your expressed relational abilities. This is the thing that businesses are searching for in expected representatives. Experts utilize the English language, for instance a specialist, who might utilize clinical wording with English rather than plain English. With this new innovation that we have now, there must be an unmistakable and exact route for medical caretakers and specialists to discuss. It is an all inclusive term of reference and exceptionally valuable for pinpointing or depicting an area or system that is required. Specialists and attendants may likewise utilize clinical wording while talking about something before a patient so as to forestall undue tension. Clinical â€Å"jargon† isn't at all intended to talk in pig latin before a patient. It is so that there is no slip-up when specialists are passing on data about a patient to one another. For instance, to a layman, â€Å"fever† may imply that the individual feels hot, or that the temperature is over 100 Fahrenheit. Be that as it may, nobody truly knows and can create a ton of turmoil. With clinical terms, things are extremely clear, so that even a specialist in France can peruse a logical diary article and know precisely what the writer implies. That way, additionally, medication can be worldwide and that the clinical social orders can share thoughts and advancements. Since everything in a patient’s clinical records must be archived, from signs and side effects, to the patient’s clinical history, to the last conclusion and treatment, it spares the specialists and all other clinical faculty a lot of ime to utilize an all around acknowledged type of clinical wording. What's more, significantly more critically to utilize clinical phrasing, implies it will be more secure when every single clinical expert, from specialists and medical caretakers, lab specialists to radiology specialists, and so forth utilize a similar all inclusive clinical wording so they don’t need to attempt to think about what was requested or diagrammed on the patient’s clinical records or what method a patient needs. English is utilized to impart comprehensively in light of the fact that there are a wide range of dialects on the planet, and there are none that are more significant than the English language. The utilization of the English language is something that is viewed as a necessity in numerous fields of business, particularly in the more elevated levels. Indeed, even in nations where English isn't the country’s first language, an essential information on English is commonly required. This reality is unquestionably evident in the fields of medication and processing, where one will undoubtedly need to speak with somebody that was not conceived in a similar nation that you were. Also, in these fields, having a dialect is something that unquestionably something that can prove to be useful. English and individuals around the globe have been reading it for various years for them to learn it as best as they can. Chances there will more than likely be where an individual would need to speak with somebody from another nation, and if English, an individual could profit by learning it! Furthermore, with this worldwide language of correspondence, it will not be an exertion that is futile. We can utilize English as a wellspring of information and a large portion of the information is one the web. There’s just a single issue. The majority of this information is in English. You should realize how to communicate in English and compose English so as to utilize website pages that are in English Here are a few instances of information you can utilize in the event that you know English: * Most pages on the Web. There’s over a billion (1,000,000,000) pages of data! It’s astonishing that learning only one language gives you access to practically all information on the Internet. * Books †regarding any matter, from everywhere throughout the world. Peruse books by British or American writers, and books deciphered from different dialects. Whatever you’re keen on, you can find out about it in English! * The press. Just English-language magazines and papers can be purchased in all aspects of the world. You don’t need to look for Time, Newsweek, or the International Herald Tribune! * Science. English is the way in to the universe of science. In 1997, 95% of the articles in the Science Citation Index were written in English. Just about half of them were from English-talking nations like the USA or Britain. * News reports. Watch global telecom companies, for example, CNN International and NBC. They communicate news a lot quicker, and all the more expertly, than littler, national systems. Furthermore, you can watch them wherever on the planet gave they are really communicating in English. Will English be undermined later on? Bring a goliath jump into the future by whatever implies accessible to you. A hundred years ahead would be sufficient for the reason as a main priority. You simply need to look at what changes the English language would have experienced over this timeframe. Your developing worry for the fate of the English Language is in reality reasonable, as you are completely mindful that at present certain progressions to the English language are occurring and these progressions are unavoidable as they are a piece of modernisation. So as to incorporate with the innovation of the day and to encourage the best possible utilization of current specialized strategies, for example, text informing on cell phones, the progressions that are being applied to syntax and accentuation are unavoidable. These things may occur later on and may likewise influence the eventual fate of the English language. In summarizing, English has become a universal language with worldwide importance. English is the global language in light of the fact that in certain occurrences it is the language of more extensive correspondence both among people from various nations and between people from a similar nation. English language turned into the universal language, on the grounds that the British held numerous nations and were powerful in making English the global language. English is critical to any potential boss since it tells that instructs you realize the best way to compose plainly and viably. They additionally need to be certain that your expressed relational abilities are very much evolved. Experts for instance a specialist would utilize clinical phrasing with English rather than plain English since it is expected to impart between staff in an emergency clinic where it is important that they realize what is happening w

Marketing Research Essay Example for Free

Advertising Research Essay 1. Clarify the contrast between testing for critical contrasts and testing for affiliation. On the off chance that a relationship present between two factors, it is essential to know thw bearing, the heading of a relationship can be either positive or negative. A comprehension of the quality of affiliation likewise is significant. Specialists by and large order the stenght os relationship as no relationship, feeble relationship, moderate relationship, or solid relationship. On the off chance that a reliable and precise relationship is absent, at that point there is no relationship. 2. Clarify the distinction among affiliation and causation. It depends on the off chance that we have a straight relationship, which implies the quality and nature of the connection between them continues as before over the scope of the two factors, and can be best depicted utilizing a straight line; or a curvilinear relationship, which implies the quality as well as bearing of the relationship changes over the scope of the two factors. 3. What is covariation? How can it vary from relationship? Covariation is the measure of progress in one variable that is reliably identified with the adjustment in another variable of intrigue. 4. What are the contrasts among univariate and bivariate measurable procedures? Univariate centers around one variable, and bivariate spotlights on 2 5. What is relapse examination? When might you use it? Factual method that investigates the direct connection between two factors by assessing coefficients for a condition for a straight line. One variable is assigned as needy variable and the other is called an autonomous or indicator variable. 6. What is the primary issue brought about by high multicollinearity among the autonomous factors in a numerous relapse condition? A circumstance where a few autonomous factors are exceptionally related with one another. This trademark can bring about trouble in assessing discrete or free relapse coefficients for the connected factors.

IMPACT OF POLYMERS ON SOCIETY Example

IMPACT OF POLYMERS ON SOCIETY Example IMPACT OF POLYMERS ON SOCIETY â€" Essay Example > 1-INTRODUCTION In many years the development of polymers and other related materials has continued to gain a lot of interest more especially from the scientists. Perhaps this is due it is role in developing the society. The innovative process has been witnessed in many parts of the world and more especially in the developed world. Research has shown that production of polymers related products has increased across the world and this has been attributed to the multiplication of the applications of polymers in the society. The demand for plastic has continued to increase the world over [5]. In Europe for example the current usage rate of plastic is estimated to be above 100 kg per an individual in each single year. Plastic materials are non-biodegradable. Because of its resistance to degradation, there has been persistent struggle world over to produce those polymers that are biodegradable and that are friendly to the environment. However, as the innovation processes continue there is need to establish a variety of uses for them. There is need to have an integrated system of management that will be applied to dispose the polymer wastes and recycle them. The polymer sources, usage, reuse and recycling need to be taken into consideration to ensure that benefits outweigh the cost. The ultimate objective of this assessment is to evaluate the impact of polymers in the society by looking both at its positive and negative effects. 2-POSITIVE IMPACT2-1-1-Medical applications Both natural and artificial polymers have continued to get more support perhaps because of its role in functioning in human body parts. This is because polymers can be used as replacements or supplements for different body parts such as hips, joints, knees, breasts and dental parts. This application has seen a lot of development of quality of life especially to those people who have problems that are associated with failure to function by one or more of the body parts. The polymers that are comm only used to replace body parts include: the polyethylene (PE), the polyurethane (PU), the polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyacetal (PA), the polylactic acid (PLA), the polypropylene (PP) and the Polysulfone (PS). Given the fact that different polymers are made from different materials, they have enabled the medicine sector to better its services by applying some of these polymers to different functions within the medical sector. Polymers are also characterized by there forms which make it easier for them to be modified into different shapes in order to serve different needs. Since polymers have a quality of being strong materials, they do qualify to be used develop artificial structures such as bone plates as well as nails [Table 1]. Table 1: different materials used in medical applications 2-1-2-Joint ReplacementJoints play a very vital role in the body of a human body. This is because it is by their existence that body parts can move. Ideally, it is through flexible joints th at human beings can walk and remain flexible all the time. In some cases joints may develop some complications which may be related to injuries and fractures and even illness [7]. In such cases polymers are used by medical practitioners either to supplement or totally replace the affected joints [Figure 1].

Taking a Look at Slave Narratives - 527 Words

Discussion and Analysis Slave narratives offered valuable information about slavery because slave narratives were experienced by slaves themselves so they documented their life and recorded their experience under slavery; they revealed their daily life, their thoughts, their values, their fears, their struggles, and their efforts to obtain freedom. Reading slave narratives helped the readers to realize the idea that slaves were real human beings who were as properties that could be bought, sold, and owned by others. Thus, readers would be able to learn more about the cruel nature of slavery, the relationship between slaves and their masters, the relationship between slaves and their families, their techniques and strategies which they used to escape, their personalities, and their culture. These narratives gave voice and granted right to generations of African American to narrate their stories from different perspectives, some of them described slavery from the viewpoint of black women, some of them describ ed slavery from the viewpoint of a black men who was born a slave and later escaped to the North, and some of them described slavery from the viewpoint of free men who were kidnapped and sold as slaves. The structure of slave narratives in the antebellum usually began with information about slave’s birth and childhood to establish an identity and to prove to the readers that they were normal human beings, butShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Octavia Butler s Kindred912 Words   |  4 PagesHowever, the narrative itself is fascinating in the way it confronts history in order to deconstruct it and rebuild it. Dana’s journey to antebellum Maryland enables the reader to take a new look at characters they though they knew, like Sarah’s role as the â€Å"mammy.† Butler’s blending of the Neo-slave narrative genre and Fantasy allows her protagonist to get up close and person with these figures to see how well her â€Å"knowledge† of them in 1976 hold upà ¢â‚¬â€when she has to live as a slave herself. By closingRead MoreThe Harlem Renaissance and Slave Narratives1431 Words   |  6 Pagesstrides in politics and economics which was very different from how the slaves lived and hoped, but there still were similarities like a will for a better life, and hope for the future which both embraced even though they were in a dreadful position. Of course there also are differences, in this case that Harlem writers and artist were more educated and saw education as a stair way towards progress and equality, where the slave authors didn’t have education and didn’t care about it, the second differenceRead MoreFrederick Douglass’ Outright and Subtle Irony1219 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿ Frederick Douglass’ Outright and Subtle Irony Frederick Douglass’ Outright and Subtle Irony Frederick Douglass’ autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave offers a depiction of slavery like very few before him, from his firsthand accounts. Douglass wanted to show his opposition to slavery and knew he would meet many criticisms. Due to this criticism, he had to mask much of his work with irony. Some of his works are obvious andRead MoreBeloved by Toni Morrison1455 Words   |  6 Pagessuffered horrifically. Not many slaves knew their mothers because they were torn from their homes. Many slave women were robbed of their innocence by their masters. Behind the face of every slave, there is always a very traumatic unforgettable story which is not something to pass on, but a lesson to remember from repeating same mistake again. Only a handful of slaves learned to read and write, and from their stories we can read the horrors they went through. Slave narratives brings these hardships to lightRead MoreNarrative Of The Life Of Fredrick Dou glass, An American Slave916 Words   |  4 Pages Narrative of The Life of Fredrick Douglass, an American Slave In Fredrick Douglass’s a narrative, Narrative of The Life of Fredrick Douglass, an American Slave, he narrates an account of his experiences in the dehumanizing institution of slavery. This American institution was strategically formatted to quench any resemblance of human dignity. Throughout, the narration of his life Fredrick Douglas, meticulously illustrates the methodical process that contributed to the perpetual state of slaveryRead MoreThe Ethics Of Ambiguity, By De Beauvoir1283 Words   |  6 Pagesmake choices. This is more eloquently described in by De Beauvoir in her work The Ethics of Ambiguity, in which she explains that taking this right away from someone is oppressive and inhumane. One of the greatest examples of this immoral actions is the slavery that happened in the United States. This tragic historical event provides us with the illustration of what it looks like to take away someone’s basic right to choice. It is also imperative to understand that s lavery, although having physicallyRead More12 Years a Slave and Crossing the River: Postcolonial Critique1155 Words   |  5 Pagesthe Atlantic slave trade, subsequently producing unconscious bigotry and racialized fantasies. As a postcolonial United States absconded from the political, cultural and economic ways of Great Britain, imperialism remained as a consequence of the human colonialism of slavery. Steve McQueen’s adaptation of 12 Years a Slave depicts the legacy of slavery and racism, and its relation to the African American diaspora. Through the collapse of identity and white prevalence, 12 Years a Slave subverts orderRead MoreThe Escape Of William And Ellen Craft Essay1630 Words   |  7 Pagesincrease in the phenomenon of runaway slaves proportional to the increase in slavery at the time. To accommodate slaves, the Underground Railroad and several committees dedicated to the aid of fugitive slaves were developed. Free blacks and whites collaborated with the intent of assisting slaves in their journey to the north and in maintaining their freedom while living in northern states. Abolitionist societies also worked to document the experiences of runaway slaves and expose to the public the atrocitiesRead MoreIntroduction. Equiano Olaudah A Slave From Eboe Who Became1319 Words   |  6 PagesOlaudah a slave from Eboe who became an important figure in the history of slavery, was kidnapped at the age of 11/12 years of age along with his sister from their hometown in the village of Essaka (Benin), a state which is now located in the southern region of Nigeria, West Africa. Born in 1745, in an isolated, but a rich kingdom called Eboe, Olaudah Equiano, commonly known as Gustavus Vassa was born. The youngest boy of seven children, he was a favorite of his mother. His narrative has not onlyRead MoreEquiano Olaudah A Slave From Eboe Who Became An Important1431 Words   |  6 PagesOlaudah a slave from Eboe who became an important figure in the history of slavery, was kidnapped at the age of 11/12 years of age along with his sister from their hometown in the village of Essaka (Benin), a state which is now located in the southern region of Nigeria, West Africa. Born in 1745, in an isolated, but a rich kingdom called Eboe, Olaudah Equiano, commonly known as Gustavus Vassa was born. The youngest boy of seven children, he was a favorite of his mother. His narrative has not only

Biography of Queen Alexandra

Queen Alexandra (December 1, 1844 – November 20, 1925) was the longest-serving Princess of Wales in British history. She was the wife of King Edward VII, the successor to Queen Victoria. Although her public duties were limited, Alexandra became a style icon and did significant charity work in her lifetime. Fast Facts: Queen Alexandra Full Name:  Alexandra Caroline Marie Charlotte Louise JuliaOccupation: Queen of the United Kingdom and Empress of IndiaBorn: December 1, 1844 in Copenhagen, DenmarkParents: Christian IX of Denmark and his consort, Louise of Hesse-KasselDied: November 20, 1925 in Norfolk, EnglandKnown For: Born a princess of Denmark; married Queen Victorias son and heir; as queen, held little political power but was influential in fashion and charity workSpouse: King Edward VII (m. 1863-1910)Children: Prince Albert Victor; Prince George (later King George V); Louise, Princess Royal; Princess Victoria, Princess Maud (later Queen Maud of Norway); Prince Alexander John Princess of Denmark Born Princess Alexandra Caroline Marie Charlotte Louise Julia of Denmark, Alexandra was known to her family as â€Å"Alix.† She was born at the Yellow Palace in Copenhagen on December 1, 1844. Her parents were minor royalty: Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glà ¼cksburg and Princess Louise of Hesse-Kassel. Although they were members of the Danish royal family, Alexandras family lived a comparatively low-key life. Her father Christian’s income came only from his army commission. Alexandra had several siblings, but was closest to her sister Dagmar (who would later become Maria Feodorovna, Empress of Russia). Their family was close with Hans Christian Andersen, who occasionally visited to tell the children stories. The Danish royal family became more complicated in 1848, when King Christian VIII died and his son, Frederick, became king. Frederick was childless, and because he ruled both Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein, which had differing succession laws, a crisis arose. The ultimate outcome was that Alexandra’s father became the heir to Frederick in both regions. This change elevated Alexandra’s status, as she became the daughter of a future king. However, the family remained outside of court life, partially due to their disapproval of Frederick. Princess of Wales Alexandra was not Queen Victoria and Prince Albert’s first choice to marry their son, Prince Albert Edward. Nevertheless, Alexandra was introduced to the Prince of Wales by his sister, Princess Victoria, in 1861. After a courtship, Edward proposed in September of 1862, and the couple were married on March 10, 1863 at St. George’s Chapel at Windsor Castle. The wedding was a less festive occasion than many had hoped for, since the court was still in mourning for Prince Albert, who had died in December 1861. Alexandra gave birth to their first child, Prince Albert Victor, in 1864. The couple would go on to have a total of six children (including one who died at birth). Alexandra preferred to be a hands-on mother, but she also continued to enjoy her social life, carrying on hobbies such as hunting and ice skating. The couple were the center of society, bringing a youthful fun to a court long-dominated by a strict (and now mourning) queen. Even after rheumatic fever left her with a permanent limp, Alexandra was noted for being a charming and cheerful woman. Although most accounts seem to show that Edward and Alexandra had a fairly happy marriage, Edwards affection for his wife did not stop the prince from continuing his infamous playboy ways. He carried on several affairs throughout their marriage, both flings and long-term extramarital relationships, while Alexandra remained faithful. She became increasingly isolated, due to a hereditary condition that caused her to slowly lose hearing. Edward ran in scandalous circles and was very nearly implicated in at least one divorce hearing. As Princess of Wales, Alexandra performed many public duties, taking on the burden of some of her mother-in-law Victoria’s public appearances such as opening ceremonies, attending concerts, visiting hospitals, and otherwise conducting charity works. She was a popular young addition to the monarchy and was almost universally liked by the British public. In the early 1890s, Alexandra and her family suffered multiple losses that would also change the course of two monarchies. Prince Albert Victor, her eldest son, died in 1892 at the age of 28 after falling ill during a flu pandemic. His death devastated Alexandra. Albert Victors younger brother, George, became the heir and even married Albert Victor’s former fiancà ©e, Mary of Teck; it is from this line that the current British monarchy descends. Alexandra’s sister Dagmar also suffered a major loss in 1894: her husband, the Russian Tsar Alexander III, died. Dagmars son took the throne as Nicholas II. He would be the last tsar of Russia. Queen At Last Edward was the longest-serving Prince of Wales in history during his lifetime. (He was surpassed by his descendant Prince Charles in 2017.) However, he finally ascended to the throne upon Queen Victoria’s death in 1901. By this time, Edward’s taste for excess was catching up to him and his health, so Alexandra had to appear in his place for a few events. This was the only time that Alexandra was permitted to be involved in matters of importance. She held political opinions (for example, she was wary of German expansion from the beginning) but was ignored when she expressed them in both public and private. Ironically, her distrust proved prescient: she urged against the British and Germans â€Å"swapping† dominion over a pair of islands, which the Germans ended up using as a fortified stronghold during the world wars. Edward and his ministers went so far as to exclude her from trips abroad and forbid her to read briefing papers so that she would not try to exert any influence. Instead, she poured her efforts into charity work. On one occasion, however, Alexandra broke protocol and appeared publicly in a political context. In 1910, she became the first queen consort to visit the House of Commons and watch a debate. She would not be queen consort for long, though. Only a few months later, she was on a trip to Greece, visiting her brother, King George I, when she received word that Edward was seriously ill. Alexandra made it back in time to say goodbye to Edward, who died on May 6, 1910 after a bout of bronchitis and a series of heart attacks. Their son became King George V. Later Years and Legacy As the queen mother, Alexandra mostly continued her duties as she had as queen consort, focusing her efforts on charity work with a side of anti-German cajoling. Her generosity was renowned, as she willingly sent money to anyone who wrote to her asking for help. She lived to see her fears about the Germans realized with the outbreak of World War I, and rejoiced when her son changed the royal family’s name to Windsor to avoid German associations. Alexandra suffered another personal loss when her nephew, Nicholas II, was overthrown during the Russian Revolution. Her sister Dagmar was rescued and came to stay with Alexandra, but her son George V refused to offer asylum to Nicholas and his immediate family; they were murdered in 1917 by the Bolshevik revolutionaries. In the last years of her life, Alexandra’s health declined, and she died from a heart attack on November 20, 1925. She was buried at Windsor Castle next to Edward. A popular royal in life and death, Alexandra was mourned deeply by the British public, and she became the namesake for everything from palaces to ships to streets. Although she was not permitted any political influence, she was a style icon for the women of her time and defined an entire era of fashion. Her legacy was not one of politics, but of personal popularity and boundless generosity. Sources Battiscombe, Georgina. Queen Alexandra. Constable, 1969.Duff, David. Alexandra: Princess and Queen. Wm Collins Sons Co, 1980.â€Å"Edward VII.† BBC, http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/edward_vii_king.shtml.

History of Architecture from Ancient world Free Essays

Discus the early development of urban architecture in the ancient Near East, with specific reference to one or two cities in the ‘Fertile Crescent. ‘ The history of civilization has been one of the most significant fields of study for a very long time. After the agriculture revolution the number of population grow rapidly, civilizations were formed and cities were being built to accommodate the growing populations of the ancient civilization. We will write a custom essay sample on History of Architecture from Ancient world or any similar topic only for you Order Now Architecture has always been a vital part of the civilizations throughout the history of mankind. As Nations become powerful and prosperous their Architecture becomes more dominant by building rater cities, public splendor and religious monuments. From the birth of civilizations until now many civilizations have appeared and disappeared from the face of the earth for various reasons. The ones that have survived and claim their existence have carried out their identity, culture and Architecture from their ancestors. Those civilizations that have vanished due to foreign invasions or other unknown reasons have left us their ancient cities and Architecture that need to be discovered. A great example that we can refer to is the Ancient Near East, where one f the earliest human civilizations were living in. It is told that the Sumerians were the first civilization that once lived in Mesopotamia which is in Ancient near east and worlds first cities also developed in here which includes Summer (Our) and Babylon (Wildfowl Matthews, n. D. ) In this Essay I will be focusing on the urban development and Architecture of the Ancient civilizations which includes the Sumerians and the Babylonians that were based in Mesopotamia the lands of Fertile Crescent. The Ancient Near East which is now known as the Middle East was the birth place of he civilization, It was here in Mesopotamia where the world’s first civilization (Sumerians) claimed their existence (Wildfowl Matthews, n. D. ) The Sumerians lived in Mesopotamia (a fertile land between the Tigris River and Euphrates River in the Ancient Near East). These two rivers were very important for the Sumerian Civilization because of agriculture and trade, since it was one of the main routs of their economy. The Sumerians were the first civilizations that farmed in large scale â€Å"It was here that the first farmers learned to cultivate grain, growing what they needed ether than gathering wild varieties†(Wildfowl Matthews, n. D. ) Following the agriculture revelation and a great increase in population led to the multiplication of large communal centers of an urban character (Lamp, n. D. , BC. 8) As it is still apparent that when a nation becomes powerful and prosperous their architecture becomes more prominent and there cities become more complex. Following the agriculture revelation the Sumerian economy grow rapidly and at the same time cities were taking shape and also public splendor and religious monuments were merging from the middle of the cities. â€Å"For the people of Ancient near east there cities meant more than Just a city for them, it was a complex that only a god could have created it and according to the ideal concept of the people in the ancient near east, cities did not develop in slow growth, to paraphrase the cosmogony: there was time when the city had not been made†¦ And then the city was made† (Lamp, n. D. , p. ) The Sumerians built their cities around a huge monumental religious building with a tower that can be seen from up to km away. They built the high tower (Gujarat) n the middle of the city that the farmers far away could still see their house of God and for the Sumerians the Gujarat was a connection between their city and the havens. The city was enclosed by a wall that was surrounded b y farms and villages. It is very important to understand the history of Architecture and planning before we could make any comment about the relationship between modern Architecture and ancient Architecture. The western Architecture that can be mentioned as a â€Å"modern Architecture† derived from the Architecture of the very first civilizations in Mesopotamia (Watkins, 2005, p. ) The city of Our is one of the most famous Ancient Cities of the Sumerians therefore it can be mentioned as a typical Sumerian Urban Architecture example. Similar to the other Sumerian cities the city of Our also had a Gujarat (a huge religious monumental building) in the middle of the main city, it is estimated that it took at least 1500 men 5 years Just to build its base. The main city of Our that was an enclosed area of 89 hectares with estimated population 34,000 people was surrounded by a huge mud-brick retaining wall that had another wall at the top which was built out of burnt-bricks. The size and population of the Our city including the towns and near suburbs that was situated outside the wall of the city was huge. As the author George R. Collins mentioned in his book (Cities and planning in the Ancient Near East) â€Å"Greater Our with its suburbs, merchant quarters and dependencies might have been a City of a quarter million people. (Lamp, n. D. , p. 15) The Architecture of the houses behind the city wall was very similar to each other; they were built out of mud-brick and they all had low doors and a few air vents in order to keep the interior cool in the summer. None of the houses was aligned with heir neighbors â€Å"the orientation of the buildings is non uniformed, with some designed to face the circular roadways and others positioned i n what appears to be a more ad hoc fashion†(Asana Herrmann, 2010, p. 6) Considering the layout, design and materials of the Mesopotamia cities and houses it becomes clear that the people of Mesopotamia were moderately conservative in terms of their approach to planning their cities and buildings(Lamp, n. D. , p. 17) Babylon the capital of Babylonian situated on the old Euphrates in Mesopotamia which is a part of modern day Iraq is one of the ancient cities that stands equally with Athens and Rome as a culture ancestor of the western civilization. It was one of the large cities of its time that had a population of around half a million people including the suburbs and towns outside the city wall (Sags, 2000, p. 26) The city and its temples were destroyed many times by foreign invaders and were frequently rebuilt because of its religious importance. The city of Babylon too like other cities in the ancient Near East had its own Architecture and planning identity, it was here that brick was widely used for religious and monumental buildings. Excavation in Iraq as revealed the city grid plan with its double walls, towers and canal connecting it to the river, as well as the foundations of brick built Temples, Palaces, fortifications and the famous Gujarat†(Watkins, 2005, up. 18-20) The city had a rectangular shape with an area of 404. 8 Hectares that was surrounded by a double fortification wall approximately mm in width with a mm cavity area in between that were reinforced by strong towers and a moat. The city had 8 main gates that lead to major streets behind the city walls and the main streets that leads to the city are paved â€Å"the main approach to the city was from a wide paved road now known as the processional way’ (Watkins, 2005) The hanging gardens that were arranged around five enormous courtyards and the massive walls of Babylon were once counted amongst the 7 wonders of the ancient world (Watkins, 2005, p. 12) Monumental and Residential buildings of the Ancient Near East As I mentioned above that most of the ancient cities were quite similar to each other in terms planning, the residential housing planning was not very different too. A typical city in the Ancient Near East would have had a monumental building in the middle of the itty with residential buildings surrounding it. According to the excavators there was a planning idea that was followed when building during the fourth millennium B. C. â€Å"The plan shows that there has been great concern for balance and symmetry in the layout of the single buildings and their fades, but there is little regard for the alignment of the temples or their relationship to one another. (Lamp, n. D. , p. 19) This reinforces the idea that the overall compositional principal was undermined as long as the individual buildings were planned considering symmetry, axes and balance. Their concern for formal planning, symmetry and axial approach is never consistently carried trough but is only applied to parts of the building† (Movement, AFAIK, Woodlouse, 2003) Letter the Babylonians adopted the same fundamentals of the Mesopotamia planning without bringing any minor changes t o it. The residential planning on the other hand was very basic, a town or a suburb was growing from a single house, and even the cities were developing in the same manner. The conclusion is that there was no difference between grown cities and planned cities. At the same time there is one principle that has always remained throughout the story of ancient planning which is the orientation of the buildings. Most of the buildings in the Ancient Near East face North West where the most pleasant wind comes from. Following the agriculture revelation for the first time in the ancient Near East, the number of population grow in the region and trade was becoming more common through the Tigris River and Euphrates River. Ancient Near East was home to the world’s first civilization and it was here that city planning and monumental buildings first appeared. Some of the architecture in the ancient Near East was counted amongst the 7 wonders of the ancient world which includes the hanging gardens in the Assyrian city and the massive walls of the Babylon city. How to cite History of Architecture from Ancient world, Papers

Public Health Coastal Development and Planned Retreat

Question: Discuss about the Case Study for Public Health of Coastal Development and Planned Retreat. Answer: Importance of the vulnerability assessment Vulnerability is an elusive concept. Definition of vulnerability varies across disciplines, ranging from the environment to economics to psychology. In this current century, vulnerability has become a significant concept for guiding the evaluation, design, and targets of a program (Moret, 2014). Assessment of vulnerability of health is most important in the zone of disaster management, hazardous substance controlling and ecology especially climate change issues. Vulnerability assessment is also vital from social perspectives related to both hazards and economic vulnerability (Fuchs et al., 2011). Vulnerability assessment allows health departments to understand the places and community that are more susceptible to health impacts associated with climate change and related exposures altered by climate change. The assessment of vulnerability of places and people can be used to implement more targeted public health actions to mitigate adverse effects of climate change on people (Moret, 20 14). In recent years the notion of resilience has been highlighted very intensely in the language of the development of a community, referring to the ability of a particular community to cope with external disturbances and stresses as a result of political, social or environmental changes. Where vulnerability is concentrated on risk factors, resilience is concerned with handling of identified issues. The blend of predictable alterations in climate change-related exposures such as temperature increase, sea-level rise, precipitation etc. will consequence in intensification of prevailing health jeopardizes and the introduction of new risk factors with an elevated degree of spatial vulnerability (Haimes, 2015). Thus, vulnerability assessment of health is vital for its proper management. Description of the selected community Melanesia has consisted of 2000 islands and is home to more than 12 million people. Melanesia is a sub-part of Oceania located in the west of Pacific Ocean. Melanesian geography contains Fiji,the Solomon Islands, Bismarck Archipelago, Vanuatu,New Caledonia, Torres Strait Islands and Papua New Guinea (Taylor and Kumar 2016). The Solomon Islands consisted of about 1000 islands which are located on east side of Papua New Guinea. The Bismarck Archipelago is considered as a part of Papua New Guinea and consisted of 200 islands, mostly volcanic in nature. Vanuatu is an archipelago which is located in the east of Australia and has 83 islands. Fiji has 110 inhabited islands and 522 small islets. Vanua Levu and Viti Levuare the two major islands of Fiji. New Caledonia has consisted of several small islands. Nearly 274 small islands exist in the Torres Strait Islands. These are a part of Queensland and a state of Australia. In the north of Australia, there located the second largest island of the world, New Guinea. The eastern portion of the island forms the mainland of the independent land of Papua New Guinea (Taylor Kumar, 2016). The indigenous inhabitants of Melanesia are Negroid people and Austronesian people came into contact with the pre-existing Papuan-speaking population about 4000 years ago. Maximum Melanesians belong to the Christian church, the value contingent upon the established church of the expatriate influence. However, many communities combined their Christian belief with the pre-Christian ethnic indigenous practices. Dense tropical forest actually permitted ethnic groups to stay reserved from one another. This stemmed in a much larger assortment of languages and cultures (Lawson, 2013). English has become the main medium of communication in Fiji and spoken by ethnic Fijians. French is the official language of New Caledonia, however, about twenty-seven indigenous languages belong to the sub-branch of Austronesian language coexist. There are 3 official languages for Papua New Guinea and over seven-hundred indigenous Papuan dialects or non-Austronesian and Austronesian languages as well. In West ern New Guinea, more than three hundred dialects with two hundred other tongues coexist. Seventy languages are spoken in the Solomon Islands. English is the official language but only two percent Solomon people speak English. Solomons Pijin is the prevalent language. Vanuatu has 3 official languages: French, English, and Bislama, while more than one hundred local dialects are spoken in Vanuatu (Blust, 2013). Sustenance is the chief feature of the Melanesian economies. Papua New Guinea is highly gifted with natural assets but proper exploitation has been hindered by harsh topography, lack of modern infrastructures, strict law, and regulation complications. Agronomy delivers a survival occupation for eighty-five percent of the total population. Mineral resources like copper, gold, and petroleum made up seventy-two percent of export incomes. The economy of Western New Guinea is less developed. The indigenous community survives by means of fishing, hunting, and cultivation of crops. Fiji is gifted with minerals, fish, and forest resources. Fiji has one of the most established economies among other Melanesian islands (Ward, 2013).New Caledoniahas about twenty-five percent ofnickel resources of the world. Only a minor proportion of the land is apt for agriculture and food products made up around twenty percent of imports. Tourism is also an important part of the economy. TheSolomon Islandsis a less economically developed land. More than seventy-five percent of Solomon Islandspopulation is involved in fishing and farming for living. Fishing provides the main economic support in theTorres Strait Islands along with subsistence horticulture. Pearlfarming is a key foundation of income for the Maluku island of Aru. Theeconomy of Vanuatu is centered on small-scale farming, which delivers the survival source for sixty-five percent of the populace. Tourism, offshore financial services and fishing and are additional supports (Ward, 2013). The climate of the Melanesian islands is tropical year-round. There is a warmer, more humid phase from November to April, and a chiller, drier period from May to October. The islands closer to the equator such as Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu are usually hotter than those situated in further south like Fiji, New Caledonia, Tonga, Cook Islands. High rainfalls occur in month of January and June is the driest month. On average, July is the coolest month in Melanesia. Numbers of tropical cyclones are high in these islands (McColl, 2014). Potential environmental changes By the completion of the decade 2031-2040, Papua New Guinea and the Indonesian Provinces of Papua and West Papua are estimated to experience total average land surface temperature rise of 0.5C to 1C from current time (Viles Spencer, 2014). Precipitation is likely to change slightly towards the northern coasts while increasing by ten percent to twenty percent all over the rest of the landmass. The external islands of PNG are predicted to have parallel temperature surges, with precipitation also estimated to upturn by ten percent to twenty percent. Cloud cover is not estimated to change a lot from the existing average during this period. The ocean ranges around the islands are expected to experience rise in the average sea-surface temperatures in between 0.5C to 1C by the conclusion of this decade (Taylor and Kumar 2016). The number of degree heat weeks per year is estimated to be between zero and five. Ocean acidification will start to impact regions all over New Guinea. Aragonite sa turation levels will decrease to underneath three, signifying that corals may experience difficulties making the calcium carbonate they require to form their skeletons. Vanuatu islands are also estimated to suffer same fate as PNG due to land and sea surface temperature rise, rainfall modifications and ocean acidification (Friedrich, 2012). By the conclusion of 2031-40 span, New Caledonia is estimated to observe average land surface temperature rise between 0.5C and 1C from present-day (Viles Spencer, 2014). Rainfall is projected to change little throughout the area, around ten percent. The ocean zones around New Caledonia are likely to see a rise in the average sea-surface temperature of between 0.5C and 1C (Viles Spencer, 2014). The figure of degree heat weeks per year is estimated to be between zero and five, and rainfall is projected to remain similar to the present yearly averages. The northern parts of Fiji will experience similar changes like New Caledonia. To the south of the main landmasses of Fiji, rainfall is expected to escalate from present by ten percent to twenty percent. Ocean acidification will be minimum in this region and aragonite saturation points are estimated to persist above three. Sea surface temperature is increasing rapidly near the equator and slowly in the upper latitudes. In the marine en vironment, temperature increase is about 0.1C. This higher temperature has emerged from the surface to a deepness of about 2300 feet (Taylor and Kumar 2016). Findings of the International Pacific Research Centre shown that sea surface-level in the north side of Melanesia have been increasing faster than the mean worldwide sea surface-level surge and prophecies are that sea-level will remain to grow more rapidly than the world-wide average, with an estimated increase of between 0.18 meter and 0.59 meter by the conclusion of this decade (Barros et al., 2014). Modifications in the El Nio and La Nia cycles can give rise to frequent tropical cyclones with increased intensity (Kingsford et al., 2011). Direct and indirect health impacts of climate change The direct biophysical impact of temperature rise is injuries and death caused due to the increased intensity of El Nio condition which is often responsible for increased precipitation and stronger cyclones. Indirect biophysical impacts due to extreme events like tropical cyclones, warmer and wetter climates are infectious and vector-borne diseases, making the indigenous population of Melanesia more susceptible (McMichael, 2013). The direct biophysical impact of warming ocean is the destruction of coral reefs and disappearance of reef fishes. Where fishing is one of the main means of living, extinction of important fish species can have distressing effects on the local population (Bell et al., 2011). The indirect impact of warmer ocean is that ocean becoming a suitable place for toxic algal blooms due to modification of coral reef ecosystem. These toxic blooms infect shellfishes which threaten the health condition of the Melanesian people who depend on shellfish for protein (IPCC Fifth Assessment Report, 2016). Changed rainfall conditions directly hamper agricultural activities and food production of Melanesian indigenous population. An indirect impact of high precipitation and flooding is penetration of coastline saltwater into the freshwater system and scarcity of drinking water (McMICHAEL Lindgren, 2011). Sea level rise has direct negative impacts associated with land loss. Land loss causes destruction of properties and also has negative impacts on mangrove ecosystem which gives shoreline protection and increases vulnerabilities of indigenous people such as indigenous people of Crab Bay in Vanuatu, who are highly dependent on mangrove resources for their income and food security (Ellison, 2015). Water stress is an indirect impact of sea-level rise which can cause serious health issues. This can be caused by effects of saline water intrusion into subsurface freshwater levels due to sea-level increase (McMICHAEL Lindgren, 2011). Climate change also negatively impacts on service and infrastructure environment on Melanesia. The impacts of extreme events like high rainfall, flood, and tropical cyclones are damage of transport facilities, delivery systems, business disruptions, damage to properties and infrastructures. Most of the fundamental infrastructures, such a power stations, hospitals, schools, farms, fuel tanks and towns located in Melanesian coastal and lower island regions. With the intensification in magnitude and frequency of cyclone events and sea-level rise, coastline zones are facing more amplified jeopardies of inundation, erosion, flooding and associated physical harms (Barnett, 2011). The environmental change also causes several challenges for transportation in Melanesia, including the closure of roads, airports, and bridges due to landslide and floods and destruction to port services. The resulting disruption of infrastructure would have direct impact on vital service and resource delivery in hospitals and health sectors. Service and infrastructure damages due to sea-level rise, flooding and cyclones have significant indirect impacts on water and sanitation (Barnett, 2011). Infrastructural economic cost depends on the scale of infrastructural developments and the intensity of hazards. In Vanuatu, infrastructure damage and associated costs for Port Vila under an extreme event scenario were projected to be approximately AU$640 million (Barnett, 2011). Climate change is found to have considerable damaging influences on social environment and well-being, effects which are mainly be felt by vulnerablepopulation. Indigenous communities especially the people of small islands will not only lose their lands, natural assets, and livelihoods but also their cultural and social identity due to climate change. They will become climate immigrants and will forcefully accept new and strange customs and practices (Campbell, 2014). Direct impacts of social environment change on health due to events like impaired place attachment, landscape modifications is psychological trauma. Psychological trauma is an immediate effect resulting from extreme climatic events and environmental changes. Events such asflooding and cyclonescan lead toanxietyand emotional stress. Temperature and sea-level rise caused social changes like migrations which can directly hamper mental well-being (McMICHAEL Lindgren, 2011). Indirect impacts relating to mental health are mo re gradual and cumulative. Extreme climatic events can impose indirect impacts through the immigration of indigenous communities due to stressors upon already inadequate resources. Common health disorders as an indirect effect due to these extreme weather events include depression,serious traumatic strain,complex grief,post-traumatic stress malady, sleep complications,anxiety, sexual dysfunction, and alcohol or drug abuse (McMICHAEL Lindgren, 2011). Description of the highest risks to the community The highest risks to the indigenous community of Melanesia arising from climate change related health impacts are decreasing in crop productivity, agricultural disturbance, and food scarcity. Increase in terrestrial temperature and change in precipitation patterns can damage food production. In Melanesia, crop productivity is estimated to decrease for even slight local temperature rise (1C-2C). A high number of indigenous people depends on fisheries and forest resources for food and income (Barnett, 2011). Sea-level upsurge, sea-surface temperature increase, and ocean acidification are destroying coral reef ecosystem and extinction of important fish species. Systematic evidence presented that, as a result of deficiency in adaptation strategies, high landmasses like Fiji could endure damages around USD 23-52 million for each year till 2050. Moreover, fisheries and aquaculture contribute significantly to the GDP and indigenous livelihood on Melanesian islands. Intense and frequent trop ical cyclones are adversely impacting inshore fisheries of these indigenous communities (Allen 2015). All this would increase the risk of hunger, exacerbate poverty with potentially large negative health effects in Melanesia (Barnett, 2011). Indigenous Melanesians are facing a high threat for their water resource damage by salt water intrusion in freshwater system. Freshwater resources in these islands are at risk because of their restricted small dimensions, availability, topography, and geology specifically in precipitation. With a 2C-4C surge in temperature, estimated economic damage aggregated up to 1 billion USD for damages of water resources. Drinking and agriculture water pressures formed by climatic changes will have dangerous impressions on poor indigenous communities who are reliant on their little water resources for survival (Allen 2015). With increased temperature and precipitation, Melanesian environment is becoming suitable for infectious, water-borne and vector-borne diseases. Warm, wet weather and climate change may work synergistically to increase disease burdens. Extreme events like landslides, tropical cyclones, and flooding create more promising breeding ground for pathogens and vectors (McMichael, 2013). Stronger cyclones mean stronger winds and these winds can carry vectors kilometers away, resulting in an introduction of new infections to the region that the land has never experienced before, making indigenous communities in that region even more susceptible. For instance, in Papua New Guinea highlands, malaria which was unfamiliar to the indigenous community has become a new hazard (McMICHAEL Lindgren, 2011). Description of four adaptation strategies for the community The Melanesian indigenous communities are coping with an unknown foe which threatens their very existence. Unfortunately, these indigenous people are ill prepared to tackle problem of climate change. Adaptation strategies for reducing the risk factors and their implementation is vital for well-being of indigenous Melanesian communities (McIver et al., 2015). The 4 main adaptation strategies for Melanesian indigenous communities are legislative, public education, infrastructural development and health intervention related adaptations. Legislative or regulatory adaptations are important for managing health issues related to food and water scarcity and reducing the risk of diseases. Risk assessment of possible effects of climate change must be integrated into food production policies and incorporation of climate change and health considerations into food production and monitoring activities are essential. Mechanisms must be incorporated in the regulatory system to supply food in remote communities. Regulatory boundaries on land-use and development in coastline areas can effectively reduce the agricultural damage and physical injuries during extreme events (Abel et al, 2011). Regulations are also needed for managing water scarcity (Barnett et al., 2013). Water conservation regulations, regulation for the use of grey-water, addition of climate change and health related reflections in vulnerability impact assessment are necessary adaptation strategies (IPCC, 2014). The indigenous people of Melanesia have very little knowledge about impacts of climate change. Public education and communication regarding nutritional standers of food are highly required. Education curriculums for primary producers on potential negative influences of climate change on agricultural and fishery practice is a vital adaptation measure (Gero, 2011). Raising awareness in these islands with respect to the imminent threats of sea-level growth and impacts of climatic alteration and intimidations in vulnerable areas is extremely needed (Barnett, 2013). Strengthening community resilience and health through community-based health programs, cross-departmental information sharing and task forces for managing impacts of climate changes on coastal indigenous communities must include in these adaptive strategies (Gero, 2011). Long-term strategic plans for infrastructure development for agriculture is needed in Melanesia. Appropriate land use can reduce the risk of food damage during flood and cyclone events. The introduction of modern infrastructures for producing own food, harvesting crops and seafood can help in adaptation. Assessment of water infrastructure with respect to amplified possibilities of extreme precipitation, cyclones and droughts are required. Infrastructural development is also necessary in the fields of climate forecasting to deliver timely warning to the population most likely to be affected, emergency management plans, climate resilient resources and sanitation practice (Field, 2012). Health interventions is another central adaptive strategy. Medical resource management and improved level of first-aid training of indigenous community members in vulnerable areas are crucial. To avoid the water-borne diseases during extreme events, appropriate medical interventions and Responses are also indispensable. Confirming access to treatment in remote and vulnerable communities and enhanced trainings on symptoms and treatment of disease must be incorporated (Hess, 2012). Description of sectors important for the vulnerability assessment The indigenous people of Melanesia are clearly vulnerable to the deleterious impacts of environmental changes. Many people in PNG and Vanuatu have already been migrated to other places due to sea-level rising and other climate change impacts. Workable programs and achievable action plans on the climate change impacts is imperative for the Melanesian islands. At the national level, Melanesian islands demand advanced suitable domestic policies and legal frameworks to deal with the impacts of climate change (Abel et al, 2011). Involvement of sectors like healthcare, legal, agriculture, research, education and communication are essential for vulnerability assessment of the Melanesian indigenous communities. These sectors and the local government together can provide a channel for indigenous communities to access much-required resources and other supports to accept adaptation actions to diminish the effects of climate change on their environment, property, and livelihoods (Barnett et al., 2013). According to Hess (2012), healthcare providers can improve the quality of life and life expectancy of these people by raising environmental awareness. These people need immediate actions by their governmental body at the domestic level and neighbour countries at the regional level not only to adopt management strategies but also to protect their lives and safeguard their future. Local climate change holistic policies and laws are also vital to protect indigenous people, their properties, economics and cultural identities (Abel et al, 2011). Participation of agricultural stakeholders in regional agricultural vulnerability assessment is vital for introducing alternate crops, drought resistant, pest resistant and sustainable crops (McIver et al., 2015). Scientists increasingly giving emphasis on engagement of agricultural stakeholders in order to develop more acceptable and applicable solutions for climate change impacts, adaptations and vulnerability assessments (Fellmann, 2012). Mittter et al. (2014), confirmed the utility of the outcomes to notify the public about local climate change impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability in agriculture. Involvement of educational professionals can raise awareness among the indigenous communities about coastal protection, water resource management, nature conservation and sustainable use and renewable energies. Information gathered through vulnerability assessment such as connection between climate change, temperature surge, extreme weather events, and rainfall changes on the cost and availability of locally grown foods can be delivered to indigenous communities with the help of awareness camps (Fellmann, 2012). Local communities can sometimes possess much vital information about changing climate which can be significant for vulnerability assessment, thus, effective communication with the indigenous people are required (Berrang-Ford, 2011). Implementation projects with local associates can illustrate the economic opportunities of innovative responses to climate change. According to McIver et al. (2015), effective vulnerability assessment can be done by improved communication ways bet ween the meteorology services, healthcare system, climate-based early warning systems and other stakeholders. Researchers can have important involvement in domestic valuations of vulnerability to extreme events, identification of vulnerable communities, improvement of early warning structures for tropical cyclones, extreme precipitation, and droughts. assessment of current vector and disease control methods, understanding of transmission dynamics including vector ecology and reservoir host, development of vaccines, natural control mechanisms of vectors, applied environmental epidemiological research focusing on climate-sensitive diseases, molecular tracing of water-borne pathogens etc. (IPCC, 2014). As stated by McIver et al. (2015), Gero (2011) and many other authors, coordination and data linkages between all these sectors, both public and private is essential for proper vulnerability assessment and implementation of adaptation strategies. References Abel, N., Gorddard, R., Harman, B., Leitch, A., Langridge, J., Ryan, A., Heyenga, S. (2011). 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Health impacts of climate change in Pacific island countries: a regional assessment of vulnerabilities and adaptation priorities.Environ Health Perspect. McMichael, A. J. (2013). Globalization, climate change, and human health. New England Journal of Medicine,368(14), 1335-1343. McMICHAEL, A. J., Lindgren, E. (2011). Climate change: present and future risks to health, and necessary responses.Journal of internal medicine,270(5), 401-413. Mitter, H., Kirchner, M., Schmid, E., Schnhart, M. (2014). The participation of agricultural stakeholders in assessing regional vulnerability of cropland to soil water erosion in Austria.Regional environmental change, 14(1), 385-400. Moret, W. (2014). Vulnerability Assessment Methodologies: A Review of the Literature. Taylor, S., Kumar, L. (2016). Global climate change impacts on pacific islands terrestrial biodiversity: a review.Trop Conserv Sci,9, 203-223. Viles, H., Spencer, T. (2014).Coastal problems: geomorphology, ecology and society at the coast. Routledge. Ward, G. (2013). Prehistoric settlement and economy in a tropical small island environment: the Banks Islands, insular Melanesia.