Public Health Coastal Development and Planned Retreat

Question: Discuss about the Case Study for Public Health of Coastal Development and Planned Retreat. Answer: Importance of the vulnerability assessment Vulnerability is an elusive concept. Definition of vulnerability varies across disciplines, ranging from the environment to economics to psychology. In this current century, vulnerability has become a significant concept for guiding the evaluation, design, and targets of a program (Moret, 2014). Assessment of vulnerability of health is most important in the zone of disaster management, hazardous substance controlling and ecology especially climate change issues. Vulnerability assessment is also vital from social perspectives related to both hazards and economic vulnerability (Fuchs et al., 2011). Vulnerability assessment allows health departments to understand the places and community that are more susceptible to health impacts associated with climate change and related exposures altered by climate change. The assessment of vulnerability of places and people can be used to implement more targeted public health actions to mitigate adverse effects of climate change on people (Moret, 20 14). In recent years the notion of resilience has been highlighted very intensely in the language of the development of a community, referring to the ability of a particular community to cope with external disturbances and stresses as a result of political, social or environmental changes. Where vulnerability is concentrated on risk factors, resilience is concerned with handling of identified issues. The blend of predictable alterations in climate change-related exposures such as temperature increase, sea-level rise, precipitation etc. will consequence in intensification of prevailing health jeopardizes and the introduction of new risk factors with an elevated degree of spatial vulnerability (Haimes, 2015). Thus, vulnerability assessment of health is vital for its proper management. Description of the selected community Melanesia has consisted of 2000 islands and is home to more than 12 million people. Melanesia is a sub-part of Oceania located in the west of Pacific Ocean. Melanesian geography contains Fiji,the Solomon Islands, Bismarck Archipelago, Vanuatu,New Caledonia, Torres Strait Islands and Papua New Guinea (Taylor and Kumar 2016). The Solomon Islands consisted of about 1000 islands which are located on east side of Papua New Guinea. The Bismarck Archipelago is considered as a part of Papua New Guinea and consisted of 200 islands, mostly volcanic in nature. Vanuatu is an archipelago which is located in the east of Australia and has 83 islands. Fiji has 110 inhabited islands and 522 small islets. Vanua Levu and Viti Levuare the two major islands of Fiji. New Caledonia has consisted of several small islands. Nearly 274 small islands exist in the Torres Strait Islands. These are a part of Queensland and a state of Australia. In the north of Australia, there located the second largest island of the world, New Guinea. The eastern portion of the island forms the mainland of the independent land of Papua New Guinea (Taylor Kumar, 2016). The indigenous inhabitants of Melanesia are Negroid people and Austronesian people came into contact with the pre-existing Papuan-speaking population about 4000 years ago. Maximum Melanesians belong to the Christian church, the value contingent upon the established church of the expatriate influence. However, many communities combined their Christian belief with the pre-Christian ethnic indigenous practices. Dense tropical forest actually permitted ethnic groups to stay reserved from one another. This stemmed in a much larger assortment of languages and cultures (Lawson, 2013). English has become the main medium of communication in Fiji and spoken by ethnic Fijians. French is the official language of New Caledonia, however, about twenty-seven indigenous languages belong to the sub-branch of Austronesian language coexist. There are 3 official languages for Papua New Guinea and over seven-hundred indigenous Papuan dialects or non-Austronesian and Austronesian languages as well. In West ern New Guinea, more than three hundred dialects with two hundred other tongues coexist. Seventy languages are spoken in the Solomon Islands. English is the official language but only two percent Solomon people speak English. Solomons Pijin is the prevalent language. Vanuatu has 3 official languages: French, English, and Bislama, while more than one hundred local dialects are spoken in Vanuatu (Blust, 2013). Sustenance is the chief feature of the Melanesian economies. Papua New Guinea is highly gifted with natural assets but proper exploitation has been hindered by harsh topography, lack of modern infrastructures, strict law, and regulation complications. Agronomy delivers a survival occupation for eighty-five percent of the total population. Mineral resources like copper, gold, and petroleum made up seventy-two percent of export incomes. The economy of Western New Guinea is less developed. The indigenous community survives by means of fishing, hunting, and cultivation of crops. Fiji is gifted with minerals, fish, and forest resources. Fiji has one of the most established economies among other Melanesian islands (Ward, 2013).New Caledoniahas about twenty-five percent ofnickel resources of the world. Only a minor proportion of the land is apt for agriculture and food products made up around twenty percent of imports. Tourism is also an important part of the economy. TheSolomon Islandsis a less economically developed land. More than seventy-five percent of Solomon Islandspopulation is involved in fishing and farming for living. Fishing provides the main economic support in theTorres Strait Islands along with subsistence horticulture. Pearlfarming is a key foundation of income for the Maluku island of Aru. Theeconomy of Vanuatu is centered on small-scale farming, which delivers the survival source for sixty-five percent of the populace. Tourism, offshore financial services and fishing and are additional supports (Ward, 2013). The climate of the Melanesian islands is tropical year-round. There is a warmer, more humid phase from November to April, and a chiller, drier period from May to October. The islands closer to the equator such as Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu are usually hotter than those situated in further south like Fiji, New Caledonia, Tonga, Cook Islands. High rainfalls occur in month of January and June is the driest month. On average, July is the coolest month in Melanesia. Numbers of tropical cyclones are high in these islands (McColl, 2014). Potential environmental changes By the completion of the decade 2031-2040, Papua New Guinea and the Indonesian Provinces of Papua and West Papua are estimated to experience total average land surface temperature rise of 0.5C to 1C from current time (Viles Spencer, 2014). Precipitation is likely to change slightly towards the northern coasts while increasing by ten percent to twenty percent all over the rest of the landmass. The external islands of PNG are predicted to have parallel temperature surges, with precipitation also estimated to upturn by ten percent to twenty percent. Cloud cover is not estimated to change a lot from the existing average during this period. The ocean ranges around the islands are expected to experience rise in the average sea-surface temperatures in between 0.5C to 1C by the conclusion of this decade (Taylor and Kumar 2016). The number of degree heat weeks per year is estimated to be between zero and five. Ocean acidification will start to impact regions all over New Guinea. Aragonite sa turation levels will decrease to underneath three, signifying that corals may experience difficulties making the calcium carbonate they require to form their skeletons. Vanuatu islands are also estimated to suffer same fate as PNG due to land and sea surface temperature rise, rainfall modifications and ocean acidification (Friedrich, 2012). By the conclusion of 2031-40 span, New Caledonia is estimated to observe average land surface temperature rise between 0.5C and 1C from present-day (Viles Spencer, 2014). Rainfall is projected to change little throughout the area, around ten percent. The ocean zones around New Caledonia are likely to see a rise in the average sea-surface temperature of between 0.5C and 1C (Viles Spencer, 2014). The figure of degree heat weeks per year is estimated to be between zero and five, and rainfall is projected to remain similar to the present yearly averages. The northern parts of Fiji will experience similar changes like New Caledonia. To the south of the main landmasses of Fiji, rainfall is expected to escalate from present by ten percent to twenty percent. Ocean acidification will be minimum in this region and aragonite saturation points are estimated to persist above three. Sea surface temperature is increasing rapidly near the equator and slowly in the upper latitudes. In the marine en vironment, temperature increase is about 0.1C. This higher temperature has emerged from the surface to a deepness of about 2300 feet (Taylor and Kumar 2016). Findings of the International Pacific Research Centre shown that sea surface-level in the north side of Melanesia have been increasing faster than the mean worldwide sea surface-level surge and prophecies are that sea-level will remain to grow more rapidly than the world-wide average, with an estimated increase of between 0.18 meter and 0.59 meter by the conclusion of this decade (Barros et al., 2014). Modifications in the El Nio and La Nia cycles can give rise to frequent tropical cyclones with increased intensity (Kingsford et al., 2011). Direct and indirect health impacts of climate change The direct biophysical impact of temperature rise is injuries and death caused due to the increased intensity of El Nio condition which is often responsible for increased precipitation and stronger cyclones. Indirect biophysical impacts due to extreme events like tropical cyclones, warmer and wetter climates are infectious and vector-borne diseases, making the indigenous population of Melanesia more susceptible (McMichael, 2013). The direct biophysical impact of warming ocean is the destruction of coral reefs and disappearance of reef fishes. Where fishing is one of the main means of living, extinction of important fish species can have distressing effects on the local population (Bell et al., 2011). The indirect impact of warmer ocean is that ocean becoming a suitable place for toxic algal blooms due to modification of coral reef ecosystem. These toxic blooms infect shellfishes which threaten the health condition of the Melanesian people who depend on shellfish for protein (IPCC Fifth Assessment Report, 2016). Changed rainfall conditions directly hamper agricultural activities and food production of Melanesian indigenous population. An indirect impact of high precipitation and flooding is penetration of coastline saltwater into the freshwater system and scarcity of drinking water (McMICHAEL Lindgren, 2011). Sea level rise has direct negative impacts associated with land loss. Land loss causes destruction of properties and also has negative impacts on mangrove ecosystem which gives shoreline protection and increases vulnerabilities of indigenous people such as indigenous people of Crab Bay in Vanuatu, who are highly dependent on mangrove resources for their income and food security (Ellison, 2015). Water stress is an indirect impact of sea-level rise which can cause serious health issues. This can be caused by effects of saline water intrusion into subsurface freshwater levels due to sea-level increase (McMICHAEL Lindgren, 2011). Climate change also negatively impacts on service and infrastructure environment on Melanesia. The impacts of extreme events like high rainfall, flood, and tropical cyclones are damage of transport facilities, delivery systems, business disruptions, damage to properties and infrastructures. Most of the fundamental infrastructures, such a power stations, hospitals, schools, farms, fuel tanks and towns located in Melanesian coastal and lower island regions. With the intensification in magnitude and frequency of cyclone events and sea-level rise, coastline zones are facing more amplified jeopardies of inundation, erosion, flooding and associated physical harms (Barnett, 2011). The environmental change also causes several challenges for transportation in Melanesia, including the closure of roads, airports, and bridges due to landslide and floods and destruction to port services. The resulting disruption of infrastructure would have direct impact on vital service and resource delivery in hospitals and health sectors. Service and infrastructure damages due to sea-level rise, flooding and cyclones have significant indirect impacts on water and sanitation (Barnett, 2011). Infrastructural economic cost depends on the scale of infrastructural developments and the intensity of hazards. In Vanuatu, infrastructure damage and associated costs for Port Vila under an extreme event scenario were projected to be approximately AU$640 million (Barnett, 2011). Climate change is found to have considerable damaging influences on social environment and well-being, effects which are mainly be felt by vulnerablepopulation. Indigenous communities especially the people of small islands will not only lose their lands, natural assets, and livelihoods but also their cultural and social identity due to climate change. They will become climate immigrants and will forcefully accept new and strange customs and practices (Campbell, 2014). Direct impacts of social environment change on health due to events like impaired place attachment, landscape modifications is psychological trauma. Psychological trauma is an immediate effect resulting from extreme climatic events and environmental changes. Events such asflooding and cyclonescan lead toanxietyand emotional stress. Temperature and sea-level rise caused social changes like migrations which can directly hamper mental well-being (McMICHAEL Lindgren, 2011). Indirect impacts relating to mental health are mo re gradual and cumulative. Extreme climatic events can impose indirect impacts through the immigration of indigenous communities due to stressors upon already inadequate resources. Common health disorders as an indirect effect due to these extreme weather events include depression,serious traumatic strain,complex grief,post-traumatic stress malady, sleep complications,anxiety, sexual dysfunction, and alcohol or drug abuse (McMICHAEL Lindgren, 2011). Description of the highest risks to the community The highest risks to the indigenous community of Melanesia arising from climate change related health impacts are decreasing in crop productivity, agricultural disturbance, and food scarcity. Increase in terrestrial temperature and change in precipitation patterns can damage food production. In Melanesia, crop productivity is estimated to decrease for even slight local temperature rise (1C-2C). A high number of indigenous people depends on fisheries and forest resources for food and income (Barnett, 2011). Sea-level upsurge, sea-surface temperature increase, and ocean acidification are destroying coral reef ecosystem and extinction of important fish species. Systematic evidence presented that, as a result of deficiency in adaptation strategies, high landmasses like Fiji could endure damages around USD 23-52 million for each year till 2050. Moreover, fisheries and aquaculture contribute significantly to the GDP and indigenous livelihood on Melanesian islands. Intense and frequent trop ical cyclones are adversely impacting inshore fisheries of these indigenous communities (Allen 2015). All this would increase the risk of hunger, exacerbate poverty with potentially large negative health effects in Melanesia (Barnett, 2011). Indigenous Melanesians are facing a high threat for their water resource damage by salt water intrusion in freshwater system. Freshwater resources in these islands are at risk because of their restricted small dimensions, availability, topography, and geology specifically in precipitation. With a 2C-4C surge in temperature, estimated economic damage aggregated up to 1 billion USD for damages of water resources. Drinking and agriculture water pressures formed by climatic changes will have dangerous impressions on poor indigenous communities who are reliant on their little water resources for survival (Allen 2015). With increased temperature and precipitation, Melanesian environment is becoming suitable for infectious, water-borne and vector-borne diseases. Warm, wet weather and climate change may work synergistically to increase disease burdens. Extreme events like landslides, tropical cyclones, and flooding create more promising breeding ground for pathogens and vectors (McMichael, 2013). Stronger cyclones mean stronger winds and these winds can carry vectors kilometers away, resulting in an introduction of new infections to the region that the land has never experienced before, making indigenous communities in that region even more susceptible. For instance, in Papua New Guinea highlands, malaria which was unfamiliar to the indigenous community has become a new hazard (McMICHAEL Lindgren, 2011). Description of four adaptation strategies for the community The Melanesian indigenous communities are coping with an unknown foe which threatens their very existence. Unfortunately, these indigenous people are ill prepared to tackle problem of climate change. Adaptation strategies for reducing the risk factors and their implementation is vital for well-being of indigenous Melanesian communities (McIver et al., 2015). The 4 main adaptation strategies for Melanesian indigenous communities are legislative, public education, infrastructural development and health intervention related adaptations. Legislative or regulatory adaptations are important for managing health issues related to food and water scarcity and reducing the risk of diseases. Risk assessment of possible effects of climate change must be integrated into food production policies and incorporation of climate change and health considerations into food production and monitoring activities are essential. Mechanisms must be incorporated in the regulatory system to supply food in remote communities. Regulatory boundaries on land-use and development in coastline areas can effectively reduce the agricultural damage and physical injuries during extreme events (Abel et al, 2011). Regulations are also needed for managing water scarcity (Barnett et al., 2013). Water conservation regulations, regulation for the use of grey-water, addition of climate change and health related reflections in vulnerability impact assessment are necessary adaptation strategies (IPCC, 2014). The indigenous people of Melanesia have very little knowledge about impacts of climate change. Public education and communication regarding nutritional standers of food are highly required. Education curriculums for primary producers on potential negative influences of climate change on agricultural and fishery practice is a vital adaptation measure (Gero, 2011). Raising awareness in these islands with respect to the imminent threats of sea-level growth and impacts of climatic alteration and intimidations in vulnerable areas is extremely needed (Barnett, 2013). Strengthening community resilience and health through community-based health programs, cross-departmental information sharing and task forces for managing impacts of climate changes on coastal indigenous communities must include in these adaptive strategies (Gero, 2011). Long-term strategic plans for infrastructure development for agriculture is needed in Melanesia. Appropriate land use can reduce the risk of food damage during flood and cyclone events. The introduction of modern infrastructures for producing own food, harvesting crops and seafood can help in adaptation. Assessment of water infrastructure with respect to amplified possibilities of extreme precipitation, cyclones and droughts are required. Infrastructural development is also necessary in the fields of climate forecasting to deliver timely warning to the population most likely to be affected, emergency management plans, climate resilient resources and sanitation practice (Field, 2012). Health interventions is another central adaptive strategy. Medical resource management and improved level of first-aid training of indigenous community members in vulnerable areas are crucial. To avoid the water-borne diseases during extreme events, appropriate medical interventions and Responses are also indispensable. Confirming access to treatment in remote and vulnerable communities and enhanced trainings on symptoms and treatment of disease must be incorporated (Hess, 2012). Description of sectors important for the vulnerability assessment The indigenous people of Melanesia are clearly vulnerable to the deleterious impacts of environmental changes. Many people in PNG and Vanuatu have already been migrated to other places due to sea-level rising and other climate change impacts. Workable programs and achievable action plans on the climate change impacts is imperative for the Melanesian islands. At the national level, Melanesian islands demand advanced suitable domestic policies and legal frameworks to deal with the impacts of climate change (Abel et al, 2011). Involvement of sectors like healthcare, legal, agriculture, research, education and communication are essential for vulnerability assessment of the Melanesian indigenous communities. These sectors and the local government together can provide a channel for indigenous communities to access much-required resources and other supports to accept adaptation actions to diminish the effects of climate change on their environment, property, and livelihoods (Barnett et al., 2013). According to Hess (2012), healthcare providers can improve the quality of life and life expectancy of these people by raising environmental awareness. These people need immediate actions by their governmental body at the domestic level and neighbour countries at the regional level not only to adopt management strategies but also to protect their lives and safeguard their future. Local climate change holistic policies and laws are also vital to protect indigenous people, their properties, economics and cultural identities (Abel et al, 2011). Participation of agricultural stakeholders in regional agricultural vulnerability assessment is vital for introducing alternate crops, drought resistant, pest resistant and sustainable crops (McIver et al., 2015). Scientists increasingly giving emphasis on engagement of agricultural stakeholders in order to develop more acceptable and applicable solutions for climate change impacts, adaptations and vulnerability assessments (Fellmann, 2012). Mittter et al. (2014), confirmed the utility of the outcomes to notify the public about local climate change impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability in agriculture. Involvement of educational professionals can raise awareness among the indigenous communities about coastal protection, water resource management, nature conservation and sustainable use and renewable energies. Information gathered through vulnerability assessment such as connection between climate change, temperature surge, extreme weather events, and rainfall changes on the cost and availability of locally grown foods can be delivered to indigenous communities with the help of awareness camps (Fellmann, 2012). Local communities can sometimes possess much vital information about changing climate which can be significant for vulnerability assessment, thus, effective communication with the indigenous people are required (Berrang-Ford, 2011). Implementation projects with local associates can illustrate the economic opportunities of innovative responses to climate change. According to McIver et al. (2015), effective vulnerability assessment can be done by improved communication ways bet ween the meteorology services, healthcare system, climate-based early warning systems and other stakeholders. Researchers can have important involvement in domestic valuations of vulnerability to extreme events, identification of vulnerable communities, improvement of early warning structures for tropical cyclones, extreme precipitation, and droughts. assessment of current vector and disease control methods, understanding of transmission dynamics including vector ecology and reservoir host, development of vaccines, natural control mechanisms of vectors, applied environmental epidemiological research focusing on climate-sensitive diseases, molecular tracing of water-borne pathogens etc. (IPCC, 2014). As stated by McIver et al. (2015), Gero (2011) and many other authors, coordination and data linkages between all these sectors, both public and private is essential for proper vulnerability assessment and implementation of adaptation strategies. References Abel, N., Gorddard, R., Harman, B., Leitch, A., Langridge, J., Ryan, A., Heyenga, S. (2011). 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